Between 58 and 50 B.C.E., prior to the time of his rise to power in Rome, Julius Caesar undertook the conquest of Gaul, an extensive territory roughly corresponding to modern-day France. He did this in order to enhance his financial and political status within Rome’s governing elite. The conquest of Gaul brought Britain to Caesar’s notice because of the assistance the British gave the Celts of Gaul. Rome had had a strong desire to grow from a republic to an empire, which necessitated the invasion and conquest of other territories to amass land and riches. As Virgil wrote, “Forget not, Roman, that it is your special genius to rule the peoples; to impose the ways of peace, to spare the defeated, and to crush those proud men who will not submit.” Along with the land and wealth that came to Caesar and his successors came power and glory, all of which fueled the desire to “rule the peoples.”
Beginning with Julius Caesar and ending with Honorius, the conquest of Britain and its transformation to Roman rule was a process that took centuries. Caesar’s invasion was almost an afterthought. During his successful conquest of the Gauls, he recognized that Britain was rich with deposits of tin and iron ore, and that, from a financial standpoint, their resources and prosperity would make Roman conquest worth the effort. Also, from a geographic perspective, England’s southeastern shore was only 21 miles across the Channel from Gaul, easily visible on a clear day. During the Gallic campaign, British tribes fought among themselves, and appeals for Roman support from defeated British chieftains indicated that a conquest should not be too difficult. Finally, in light of the Celts’ support of their brothers-in-arms across the Channel in Gaul, Caesar no doubt wished to teach some respect for the might of Rome.
Caesar made two forays into Britain, the first in 55 B.C.E. and the second a year later. Both expeditions were of minor consequence, because Rome’s interest in the Britons was just beginning. On both of these attacks, Caesar crossed the Channel and entered Britain by way of Deal, after first being turned away at the cliffs of Dover. Once on land, British forces were overwhelmed and victories came easily. As was the case with all Roman conquests, demands for hostages and regular tribute followed. The significance of Caesar’s invasions would not be realized immediately, but the die was cast. Britain had been brought to Rome’s attention and, with the organization of Celtic Gaul into Roman provinces, the British began to feel the impact of Roman civilization.
A century went by before the emperor Claudius turned his attention to Britain, in 43 C.E. He sent four Roman legions under the command of Aulus Plautius across the Channel into Kent with the intention of bringing Britain under Roman authority. The Claudian invasion, which lasted 15 years, marked the real beginning of Roman Britain. From this point on, the primitive culture of the British Celts was transformed by the conquering legions of a huge cosmopolitan power, and by the administrators and entrepreneurs who followed them. The invasion forces represented the best Rome had to offer: Many of the legionaries were specialists such as engineers, architects, masons, clerks, and medical staff. This mixture of soldiers was in keeping with the Roman policy of ensuring that its soldiers were highly trained, long-term professionals whose skills were as important to Rome in peace as in war. Even while garrisoned, the troops sometimes practiced digging defensive works or assisted civil authorities with building projects. This practice and experience in building and construction work made it possible for Roman armies to construct siege-works, build bridges, and lay roads very quickly during invasions.
In contrast to the highly skilled and organized Roman legions, the British had no standing armies. Lengthy campaigns were impractical for British troops because the majority of them were farmers, and they would leave the fields of battle for their fields of crops. During the Roman march through the British lowlands, in which there was little resistance, the British tried to fight with chariots. One of their favorite stratagems was to feign retreat to draw off small groups of Romans, and then attack them with chariot borne troops, dismounting to fight hand-to-hand.
Following the years of war after the Claudian invasion, there were intermittent rebellions against Roman rule. These conflicts were peacefully resolved for the most part, but there was one significant uprising known as Boudicca’s Rebellion, which took place in 60 C.E. in the British province of Iceni. This rebellion represented a critical turning point for the Romans in their quest to establish rule. Ironically, the rebellion was organized and led by Boudicca, widow of Prasutagus, king of the province of Iceni, a tribe friendly and loyal to Rome from the beginning of the Claudian invasion. Shortly before Prasutagus died, Nero ascended the Roman throne and appointed C. Suetonius Paulinus, a man of excellent military credentials, as governor of Britain. During this unstable transitional period of Roman rule in Britain, the Roman military and civil officers ransacked the Iceni kingdom of all its wealth, confiscated Queen Boudicca’s property, raped her two daughters, and flogged the queen herself. Simultaneously, her neighbors, the Trinovantes of Essex, were becoming impatient with Roman rule. Many Roman soldiers had retired and settled in the colony at Colchester and, in so doing, drove the native Trinovantes from their homes and land, and treated the natives as captives and slaves. These abuses of power and the instability of Roman rule fostered the perception by the natives that perhaps now the time was ripe to rid Britain of the invaders and regain control of their homeland.
In the year 60, the uprising commenced. On the Roman side, considerable confusion reigned at first. The British force, led by Boudicca, was a coalition of a half-dozen tribes consisting of 230,000 men, women, and children—farmers, peasants, and soldiers. They advanced on Londinium (London), a city without colonial or municipal status at the time, but already a large and attractive prize for plundering armies. Suetonius realized he did not have a force large enough to repel the British, so he retired and left the city to its fate. Londinium fell to the rebels, and many of the same atrocities and bestialities the Iceni had suffered at Roman hands now befell the residents.
The only way to defeat the overwhelming British force was with superior Roman discipline and tactics. Suetonius could now choose the location of the decisive battle, and he drew up his 10,000 troops in a defensive position to face a force of over 200,000. He placed his men on a hill with woods behind to protect his flanks and rear, then lured the British into attacking uphill. Suetonius drove through Boudicca’s force in a tight wedge, the infantry doing serious damage with the gladius, a short sword. The Roman cavalry next attacked the flanks of the disorganized British force. Unable to retreat, the British were butchered. Boudicca escaped, but she committed suicide shortly thereafter. Romanization recommenced in full force under peaceful conditions.
Another turning point took place during the reign of the emperor Hadrian in 117. His reign concentrated on consolidation of the empire rather than expansion—securing the borders of Roman Britain rather than conquering new lands—and he made use of the military to restore order in those parts of the empire with violent disaffection. The main effect of this emphasis on defense was three-quarters of a century of peace throughout the empire. Hadrian accomplished this goal in Britain by commissioning the construction of a wall 70 miles long, spanning the narrow neck of land between Solway Firth and the mouth of the Tyne. The consequences were immense. Protection from the hostile tribes of Scotland brought general prosperity, which in turn caused the provincials to more readily identify with the empire, and it created a unified governing class. The universal extension of Roman citizenship to free inhabitants of the empire would be a direct result of Hadrian’s reforms. An air of security allowed economic development by the southern tribes because it allowed them to concentrate on trade, farming, and manufacturing rather than be preoccupied with village defense. A long period of peace and prosperity followed, the likes of which had not been seen for almost 160 years.
For the next two and a half centuries, Roman Britain prospered. The Romans contributed greatly to the development of the British economy, and not only in agriculture. Britain had been mining long before the Claudian invasion, but the Romans introduced more efficient mining technology. They also contributed to the cultural development of Britain by introducing language, theater, art, and trade skills to its labor force. Rome’s greatest contribution, though, was peace. Ironically, this reduction of military force led to the successful Visigothic invasion of Britain.
During the reign of Emperor Honorius (395–423) came the beginning of the end of Roman rule in Britain. Many of the highly skilled and trained professional Roman legionaries were replaced by local tribesmen and Saxon mercenaries, who were unable to fend off attacks by the Visigoths. Honorius rejected pleas from Britain in 410 to help defend its borders, and the barbarians ultimately prevailed. Urbanization, one of Rome’s greatest contributions, halted completely, and cities and towns withered and died.
